Body Image

Although many people are raised hearing their parents say that they are perfect just the way they are, many people develop body image distortion, which can cause eating disorders. Psychologists have been trying to establish overarching theories supporting why people develop eating disorders, and while time has passed, different theories have become accepted and then rejected. Finding why individuals develop eating disorders is important, because if scientists can understand what causes them, the development can be stopped. Once Scientists understand why people develop this sickness, society can stop their pain and suffering. This article, by Donald Williamson, explores cognitive-behavioral theories concerning eating disorders.

One theory model says that the major factors of eating disorders are the body self-schema, cognitive biases, binge eating, compensatory behavior, negative reinforcement of compensatory behavior by reduction of negative emotion, and these are psychological risk factors that people who have eating disorders are believed to have. Although many people are not familiar with these terms, they are pretty easy to understand, and they are all related. A body self-schema is the belief that a person has about the way that they look. The body self-schema is a very important part of the model of this theory. Theorists believe that a risk factor for eating disorders is an over concern with an individual’s body size and shape that can be agitated by external and internal cues. Many of these cues have to do with food. A cognitive bias is a pattern of deviation in judgment that can lead to irrationality. Binge eating is when an individual suffers from episodes of uncontrollable eating. Compensatory behaviors are behaviors that are believed to ‘undo eating’. Negative reinforcement is taking something away so that a behavior will be increased. All of these things are related for eating disorders because if an individual believes that they look a certain way, and then they have an irrational belief system that leads them to unrealistic expectations to lose weight, and then they develop an eating disorder, and they binge, and then to compensate for that behavior, they can do things like purge themselves or take pills, and then they avoid eating because it makes them feel guilty. When the ideas are broken down, it’s quite simple. Some other psychological risk factors of this model for eating disorders are a fear of being fat, an over concern with body size and shape, an internalization of a thin ideal and shape, and a perfectionist and obsession with their image.

There are several cognitive biases that psychologists believe are used by those with eating disorders, and these biases maintain and reinforce their belief systems. Some psychologists have hypothesized that those individuals with eating disorders will listen to stimuli concerning food differently than those without eating disorders. One method that is used to test this hypothesis uses words related to eating, weight, and shape to test for cognitive interference. The results of the test show that by comparison, people with anorexia or bulimia respond slower to food related words. Another way of testing this hypothesis is called a dichotic listening task. This test finds that in individuals with eating disorders, selective information processing is used. The results of these tests suggest that people with eating disorders are more likely to listen to information about weight. This hypothesis is known as an attention bias. Another hypothesis is called the memory bias, which essentially means that individuals with eating disorders more readily encode into their memory information that regards weight. To test this, researchers presented a list of words that were neutral, words that referred to a fat body, and words to refer to a body that was not fat, and they found that those with eating disorders were able to remember more words about a fat body than the control group. One bias hypothesis is known as the selective interpretation bias. The selective interpretation bias is where a person interprets the information that they receive in a way that justifies their body self schema. The idea behind this is that even though someone with an eating disorder is receiving neutral information, they turn the information in such a way that it matches their beliefs.

A ‘good’ physical appearance is the goal of many people because in today’s society, every day we are shown images of what we are supposed to look like. Some psychologists believe that a common denominator of those with eating disorders is that there is a great gap between what people believe they look like, and what they actually look like. Many psychologists also theorize that an extreme drive for thinness and over valuing the importance of physical appearances is used to achieve and then maintain eating disorders. Many of the people surrounding an individual with an eating disorder are unknowingly supporting the thin ideal, and therefore giving justification to the eating disorder.
Although there are many theories and hypotheses on why individuals have eating disorders, it is a very difficult topic to study because many cases are so different. Maybe one day, scientists will be able to figure out why people are affected by eating disorders, but for now, much more research still needs to be done.

Fear the Facebook?

As a whole, we have all become too familiar with those time consuming, procrastination achieving, social networking sites. To make this idea more apparent, findings from a recent study state that 87% of adolescents (ages 12 to 17) report using the Internet. I, myself, spend an immense amount of time dedicated to browsing the Internet. Such Internet use provides adolescents and young adults with the opportunity to communicate with friends and family members; however, the Internet, especially social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook, may potentially serve as harmful distractions from daily life. “To Tweet, or Not to Tweet,” expresses several protective factors within Internet use by examining social networking gender differences and potential positive and negative Internet use effects.

To emphasize the prevalence of social networking use among adolescents, the article’s authors focused on gender differences among Internet use. As a result, researchers from the Pew Internet and American Life Project identified Internet use differences among different races, ethnicities, and income. They further concluded that the majority of teenagers regularly use the Internet, emphasizing that African Americans (77%) are less likely (77%) than Caucasian adolescents (87%) to browse the Internet. These statistics signify the strong relationship between race and leisure activity participation, particularly Internet use. Furthermore, the significance of adolescents’ household incomes in relation to Internet use demonstrates that low-income adolescents are less likely than others to report web browsing. Although not always accurate, it can be inferred that Internet use is most prevalent among Caucasian and middle to higher income adolescents. Based on these findings, protective factors can be implemented for those people who tend to engage in Internet use more often than others. This way, adolescents with higher Internet use rates will be able to understand its possible negative effects.

Popular Internet methods, such as social networking sites, blogging, and email, are positive web browsing techniques that allow adolescents to engage in communication and further their technological skills. Social networking sites (i.e. Facebook and Twitter) allow users to create a personal profile that may contain pictures and their correlating information. SNS are beneficial in that they make friends and family members easily accessible by the click of a mouse. Their popularity is demonstrated by the numerous 91% of the adolescent community engaged in social networking sites. Blogging, too, is an Internet method in which users connect and stay in touch with friends they see frequently or rarely see personally. Emailing is yet another accepted web browsing method that is seen more in college aged students rather than younger teenagers. Emailing is a quick and easy way to relay information back and forth to professors or classmates. Emailing, however, is not as frequently utilized as social networking sites which are common distractions for adolescents. This leads to the article’s idea of interest: Although there are positive aspects of Internet use, can it be harmful to its users, specifically adolescents?

The article’s main concerns are online social activity threats which include cyberbullying and sexual predators. Cyberbulling is defined as the harassment or bullying of an individual electronically, and it usually occurs through social networking sites. A United States survey of 10 to 17 year old Internet users that had used the Internet at least once per month in the past 6 months reported that 9% were cyberbullying victims. This behavior’s negative effects can be detrimental to adolescents, damaging their well-being. Sexual predators are also common dangers to those who frequently use the Internet. As teenagers browse the Internet, there is the possibility of a sexual predator on the other side of the computer screen. The article states that the arrest number against sexual predators does not even begin to account for all of the acts committed. As demonstrated throughout the article, frequent Internet use correlates with higher risks of the threats mentioned above. Parental monitoring of adolescents’ activities represents the most direct way to address adolescent behavior and may potentially minimize negative risks and consequences. It is imperative that young Internet users, as well as parents, understand the severity of these dangerous acts and take primary cautions when their kids are browsing the Internet.

Online social media, such as social networking sites, have become integral parts of adolescents’ and young adults’ lives. Parents should strive to better understand these sites and the potential benefits and hazards of adolescent online activities.

Say, "NO!" to Procrastination

School work has normally been easy for me; I never had to study for tests and exams. I procrastinated on assignments until the night before they were due; and this strategy worked: typical “A” student. My honors and even Advanced Placement classes were an “easy A.” Procrastinating worked for me, until I got to college of course. This should be a stage where I know what study habits work for me, but I find it difficult to achieve A’s. Although college has many resources that make academic achievement possible, we study independently, and the responsibility is yours to excel academically. Most students believe, “Oh it’s only your first year, you have time to figure out the ropes and improve your GPA.” Do you really? The demands of success are at an all time high, and to be successful today you need at least a Bachelor’s degree, or have some type of “talent.” Those who are realist like me, we know we will never be Carrie Underwood or Beyonce’ so we went to college. Outside of class time and in class assignments, students are usually required to do at home projects or homework assignments: the thing most dreaded by students. I found an article from the online journal Behavior Modification titled “Increasing the On-Task Homework Behavior of Youth with Behavior Disorders Using Functional Behavioral Assessment.” The research discussed in this journal refers to the positive correlation of homework and learning. If done, homework and other assignments give students, in college or middle school, extra practice to learn material taught in the classroom. That’s no secret; the work wouldn’t be assigned if not. Yet there are too many students with the same “A student” mindset that I had who feel they can wait until the last minute or they can ace an exam based off of memory and crossed fingers. The online journal discusses how students escape the demands of schoolwork while trying to maintain their expected grades.

In the Behavior Modification article, there was a study done on children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) because they have an inability to stay “on-task” and are easily side tracked. These disorders include ADHD, anxiety, OCD, and depression. These students have difficulty staying engaged in assignments, remembering tasks, and time management. Teachers are concerned that their students do not complete out of class assignments because according to researchers, homework improves attitudes towards school, builds study habits, and allows the child’s parents to get involved with their child’s education. Though staying focused may be a challenge for the students with disorders, but it is possible. Students struggling from such can discover ways to improve their behavior by taking a functional behavior assessment (FBA).


As a word of advice from myself to others struggling from procrastination or what-have-you, think about the bigger picture. Think about how doing well in school will only benefit and broaden your future. I personally saved my screensaver to my dream car as a small way of motivation. I know if I want to be successful, I need to do well in school to have a great career.

http://bmo.sagepub.com/content/32/6/840

How to - Improve Your Tennis Skills

Recent research shows that reinforcement involving feedback and praise within sports such as swimming, football, and tennis differs according to the type of attention given. These differences depend on the type of attention given, whether it is given to correct behavior or wrong behavior. Sports are quickly becoming more competitive, and it is becoming harder to reach the professional leagues; therefore, it is important to educate young athletes about ways to improve their athletic abilities. A research study, “Differential Reinforcement in Coaching Tennis Skills,” focuses on major tennis skills (forehand, backhand, and serve) while implementing different reinforcement types. The study participants gave both positive and negative feedback to the tennis players. Positive reinforcement is a behavioral technique used to increase desired behavior, whereas negative reinforcement is a technique involving a desired performance increase by avoiding poor performance. Both studies show that positive reinforcement along with negative reinforcement, rather than negative feedback, greatly influences and increases tennis abilities when considering forehand, backhand, and serve.

To obtain information for the “Differential Reinforcement in Coaching Tennis Skills” experiment, previous studies concerning the correlation between physical performance and reinforcement were researched. Discovered studies have shown that positive feedback/praise improves a young football team’s performance (the feedbacks provided included both verbal and visual). Other studies included providing monetary reinforcement, positive practices, and time-out procedures, hoping to improve athletic ability. These reinforcements have proven that when altering motor behaviors, greater improvement can be observed with positive reinforcement.

For the tennis behavior modification experiment, the experimenter picked three female students, beginners, to join a tennis class. The class implemented the three main strokes: forehand, backhand, and serve. The tennis class lasted thirty minutes, daily, instructed by a female tennis coach. Two people observed the class because “correct” strokes could be of varying perspectives; the observers did not interact with the players. Each stroke had specific criteria, which the observers used to judge the improvement over time. After each shot the players received either praise or negative comments for their efforts. Positive feedback included: “good shot” or “you are starting to bend your knees”. Negative feedback included: “that was a bad shot” or “you are not listening to me”. The observers noted the final increased ability after ten repetitive shots.

Final results showed that positive praise for correct performance increased the three tennis students’ correct performance by approximately 30%. The two observers converted every ten shot observations into statistical data: ability to hit the shot, and percent improvement. For student 1, correct performance without praise ranged from 6% to 17% while with praise the percentage increased to 42-52%. Student 2 had a smaller performance range: 8-15%, before the experiment. After positive feedback, her performance increased, 24-31% performance ability. The third student experienced a similar increase; 7-18% before, 40-66% after. The coach reduced negative feedback through out the class, but increased positive feedback. The experiment showed that positive reinforcement, while coaching, drastically improves performance. As a result, to improve their student’s ability in athletics, coaches should give positive comments and ignore the negative performances.



Buzas, Hilary P., and Teodoro Ayllon. Differential Reinforcement in Coaching Tennis Skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 5:372. Web. March 15, 2012.